UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA - AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER |
Tara L. Kneller
Neither Goddesses Nor Doormats: THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NUBIA
Tara Kneller
Syracuse University
Professor Gregory
5 April 1993
Why Such an Undertaking?
The Kingdom is Possible Because of the Queen...
The King is the Sign...While the Queen is the
Symbol....
-Warren Blakely
Nubia is an area of scholarship that was largely overlooked in favor of
its splendid neighbor, Egypt. Past finds in the area were attributed to
Egypt; current excavation of the area is impossible because of Egypt's
construction of the High Aswan Dam. However, renewed interest in
Africa- brought on largely by Afrocentric scholars such as Cheikn Anta
Diop - hasresulted in a proliferation of scholarly work on ancient
Nubia.
Much of the scholarly work up to this point is dealing with the massive
archeological digs that occurred just prior to the building of the High
Aswan Dam. As a result of this work, the amount of available
information on Nubia has increased immeasurably. Evidence has emerged
that shows a people who, after decades of colonization by the Egyptians,
rose above and established themselves as a force to be dealt with in
Africa. Nubians developed a culture and people distinctly different
from the Egyptians.
After preliminary investigation into the area of ancient Nubia, a
striking contrast emerged. The Nubians has an unusually high number of
ruling queens, especially during the golden age of the Meroitic Kingdom
(1). Although ruling queens, in themselves, may not be unusual, the
portrayal of Nubian queen is exceptional. A panel on display at the
exhibit "Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa" showed the queen smiting her
enemies. This type of representation has no equivalent in either
Egyptian or Western Art (2). This unusual find has led to research in
the role of the women in Nubian society, both past and present. The
result has been a surprising contrast between the docile Nubian woman of
today and the warrior queen of ancient times.
A History of Nubia*
In modern day Africa, Nubia would be a five-hundred mile long stretch of
land along the Nile river that is one-third in modern day Egypt and two-
thirds in the modern day Sudan (3). The kingdom of Ancient Nubia began
a bit before the first cataract and extended past the sixth cataract to
Khartoum (4). As with the Egyptians, the fertile Nile valley gave rise
to the civilization of Nubia.
The first Nubian age spanned from 3100 to 1000 B.C. This Bronze Age
contained three cultures: A-Group, C-Group, and the Kerma culture (5).
The latter of the three, Kerma, existed in the Upper Nile. These people
developed a strong trading culture that traded to both Egypt and the
Eastern Mediterranean (6). During this period, the Egyptians called
this area "Kush." Kush was the general term for Upper Nubia and was
considered to be a province of Nubia (7). The A-Group and C-Group
cultures are those that existed in the Lower Nile. For most of the
early part of their history, these cultures were dominated by Egypt.
The period of 1550 B.C. to 1100 B.C. marked the colonization of Nubia by
Egypt. By the Eighteenth Dynasty, Egypt had control over Lower and
Upper Nubia, while Southern Nubia remained independent (8). The
Egyptians began to call "Lower Nubia the land of Wawat and Upper
*Note: For the purposes of this paper, Nubia refers to the entire region
between the first and fifth cataracts. Therefore, any reference to
Kush, considered to be a Nubian province, would be considered part of
Nubia in general. Nubia the land of Kush" (9). This colonization
resulted in the disappearance of a particular Nubian C-Group; these
peoples began to adopt Egyptian culture in favor of their own (10).
This colonization was especially bitter as it occurred during the reign
of Tutankhamen who was the son of a Nubian woman (11).
Soon after the Twentieth Dynasty in Egypt, the Egyptians lost control
over Nubia and the land was plunged into a dark age. Around 900 B.C.,
evidence of a Nubian monarchy begins to emerge. Since this monarchy
begins in Upper Nubia, it was often known as the Kingdom of Kush (12).
These early rulers were buried in tumulus - a distinctly Nubian
tradition. This ceremony has led many to believe that the Kushite Kings
were of Nubian ancestry (13). By 770 B.C., these kings were extending
their rule to the North. In Nubian history, the period is commonly
called the Napatan Period (named for the royal capital of the time).
Soon, Nubians "paid back the insult by subjugating the 'all powerful'
nation" of Egypt to Nubian control. (14). The Kings now wore the crown
of the double cobra - signifying the unity of both Egypt and Nubia (15).
After 295 B.C., a shift in royal capitals from Napatan to Meroe is made
for unknown reasons. Some scholars hypothesize that the Kingdom of Kush
wished to gain control over Egyptian trade. The problem of determining
the reason for the move is made all the more difficult by the beginning
of the use of a distinctly Nubian language. This language is based upon
the heiroglyphs of the Egyptians, but since no version of it is spoken
today and there has not been an effective translation of the language,
much of what is written in this Meroitic language remains a mystery.
During this time (around 23 B.C.) Egypt fell into Roman control. The
Romans attempted to make Nubia pay tribute to them. This led to the
first confrontation between Nubia and the Romans. The Meroitic Period
proved to be one of tremendous resistance to the forces acting on Africa
at the time. Much of this resistance came at the hands of the number of
ruling queens during the period. However, by the middle of the fourth
century A.D., the Meroitic Period collapsed (16). Two reasons are
generally attributed to this: First, that Nomads of the desert made
travel overland difficult, and Second, that the rise of the Axumite
Kingdom of Abyssinia cause a collapse of the Kushite economy. In any
case, the Meroitic empire was no longer in existence by A.D. 320 (17).
Soon after, the X-Group Period began in Nubia. This period was
brusquely ended in 540 A.D. with the onslaught of Christianity.
Missionary activities continued in the area until approximately A.D.
1550. After this time, the Nubian empire was completely dismantled.
The Nubian people were left scattered throughout the fertile Nile
valley; two-thirds within Egypt, one-third within the Sudan. With the
construction of the High Dam at Aswan in the early 1960's, these peoples
were displaced and moved elsewhere in Egypt (18). Although a systematic
archeological investigation of the area was conducted, some of the
questions that swirl around the kingdom of Nubia are forever lost as
Nubia again becomes subject to Egyptian control.
Goddesses, Queens, and Commoners
Upon close examination of the history and culture of Nubia, it becomes
apparent that women played an important role. Unlike the rest of the
world at the time, women in Nubia exercised significant control. In the
Nubian valley, worship of the queen of all goddesses, Isis, was
paramount. From the capital of Meroe, warrior queens fought for the
interests of the Nubian/Kushite empire. Throughout history, women were
portrayed in Nubian art as the bearers of the offspring of the gods.
Today, Nubian women have a much different experience. Nevertheless,
Nubian women fulfill a demanding and unique series of roles.
Throughout Egypt and Nubia, the cult of Isis had a tremendous and
devoted following. Isis was not only the Egyptian goddess of magical
powers; she was the representation of the queen mother. In the most
famous fable of the period, Isis roams the world in search of the corpse
of her husband Osiris. She returns Osiris to his rightful resting
place, only to have Osiris' evil brother Set cut him to pieces and
scatter him throughout the land. Isis then takes her son Horus and sets
out to find every piece of the corpse so she may tenderly bury it in the
hopes that she can resurrect him again. She is successful, and Osiris
becomes the god of the underworld.
Although Isis, Osiris, and Horus are then established as a trinity, Isis
immediately became the most popular of the three (19). This can be
partially attributed to her role as the devoted, untiring, nurturer of
the land and culture of Egypt and Nubia.
The Cult of Isis was the strongest religion in Nubia (20). In contrast,
the Egyptians worshipped Ra (Re) in larger numbers. Ra was the god of
the sun, and distinctly male at that. The worship of Isis began with
the Meroitic period and extended into X-Group. Many Nubian rulers of
the time were pictured with Isis on their crowns. This was considered a
homage to her role as the "Queen of All Gods, Goddesses and Women" (21).
Since the ruler was considered to be born of the gods, it was only
natural that the mother should be paid such a tribute. Another example
of this type of tribute is the amulet of Isis suckling a Queen. With
the exception of the Nubian/Kushite Empire, Isis was never shown with a
queen (22). This tribute was always given to a male ruler, never a
female. However, since both Isis and the Queens played such important
roles in Nubia, the exception was made.
Another example of the reverence of Isis was the "co-sponsorship" by
Egypt and Nubia of her temple at Philae (23). Here her cult continued,
populated largely by Nubians, until the sixth century A.D. (24).
Perhaps as a result of the strong influence of women figures in
religion, Nubia and its Kushite rulers gave way to a number of strong
queens during its history. Ten sovereign ruling queens are recognized
from the period. Additionally, six other queens who ruled with their
husbands were considered significant to the history of Nubia (25). Many
of these rulers were immortalized in statuary; it was unheard of for
non-ruling queens or princesses to be immortalized in art (26). These
queens were often portrayed as being very rounded; this portrayal was
all part of the queen-mother model (27). These queens were called both
gore, meaning ruler, and kandake, meaning queen mother (28). This last
term has been corrupted to the English form Candace. Subsequently,
there has been much confusion; some Western scholars muddle the actions
of queens together under the general name.
The emergence of the queen as a viable player in the politics of the day
has its roots in the earliest Kushite tradition. Kushite rulers married
and then passed more royal power into the hands of the queen (29). The
perfect example of the expanded powers of the queen is Kushite Queen
Amanirenas. In 24 B.C., she was threatened by the Roman Empire. Egypt
was under the subjugation of Rome and the frontier of the Kushite/Nubian
empire was seventy miles south of Syene (Assuan) (30). The Nubians were
constantly raiding their Egyptian neighbors. On one of these journeys,
the Kandace Amanirenas went along. When confronted, she led her armies
into battle and defeated three Roman cohorts. In addition, the Kandace
defaced a statue of Emperor Augustus Ceasar; bringing the head back to
Nubia as a prize. This head was buried in the doorway of an important
building as a final act of disrespect (31).
During battle, the Kandace lost an eye; but this only made her more
courageous (32). "One Eyed Candace," as then Roman governor Gaius
Petronius referred to her, was chased by the Romans far into her own
territory to Pselkis (Dakka) (33). After a three day truce, the Romans
struck back. The Kandace and her armies made another stand at Primis
(Kasr/Brim), but there were soundly defeated. Although Rome destroyed
the religious capital of Napata, there was still the danger of
retaliation by the Kandace's armies. At this point, the leaders
negotiated a treaty that she was to break in a few years (34). A
historian of the period remarked "This Queen had courage above her sex"
(35). On a broader level, this is a telling example of a European
civilization unprepared for the "fierce, unyielding resistance of a
queen whose determined struggle symbolized the national pride of a
people who, until then, had commanded others" (36).
Furthermore, these queens of the Nubian/Kushite Empire were given the
special distinction of assuming a priestly role in the divine succession
of kings (37). In other societies of the period, the divine right of
the king passed from god to ruler, there was no room for a maternal
figure. However, Nubian queens are often portrayed at the event of the
divine birth. A fine example of this is the representation of Queen
Amanishakheto appearing before Amun. The Queen is pictured with a
goddess (possibly Hathor - a goddess of fertility) and is wearing a
panther skin. This signifies her priestly role in the birth of the
successor to the throne (38). This piece is one of a series. In the
first, the Queen is elected by god - this establishes her position as
rightful ruler. Soon after, the divine child is conceived out of a
meeting between the god and the Queen. Finally, the child, and heir to
the empire, is delivered to the Queen by the god (39). This complex and
important role does not seem to have an equivalent in other cultures
(40).
Additionally, by the beginning of the twenty-fifth dynasty - the
Egyptian dynasty governed by Nubian rulers - the Queen was given the
additional role of being a priestess of Nut (Nuit) (41). This would
place the Queen in the role of trusted servant to the goddess known as
the eternal mother (42). Nut is also the mother of Isis, Osiris,
Nephthys, and Set (43). The close association of the Queen with this
figure is significant. Nut is, in the Nubian and Egyptian religions,
the mother from which all the current gods and goddesses came. She
plays the role of female initiator; the Queen is her trusted confidant
on earth.
Also at this time, the Queen is beginning to be represented in royal art
with the cowrie shell (44). This shell was often used for currency and
trade. In art, the shell was thought to symbolize the vulva and, by
extension, verbal communication (45). The use of the cowrie shell,
either real or representative, was reserved only for women and their
ornaments (46). A possible explanation for this could be that women
were allowed to speak freely (and often). In any case, it shows that
the artisans of the period connected the art of verbal communication
with the ruling Queens and other influential women of the period.
Conclusion: Nubian Women of Today
Much has changed since the warrior queens of the Meroitic period struck
fear into the cold hearts of the Romans. The Nubian civilization has
become less defined and separate. The Nubians of today have been
dispersed throughout Egypt and the Sudan because of the flooding of
their homeland. Outside influences have made the impact of their past
seem a bit more distant. It is difficult to determine what to make of
the Nubian woman of today.
Nubians have a largely agricultural society. This fact, coupled with
the largely disproportionate number of women to men, has led to the
continuation of the matrilineal society. Relations are strongest on the
side of the mother; some families go so far as to have the son take on
the name of his mother (47).
Since the sex ratio is so great, women tend to dominate the culture of
present day Nubian life due to sheer numbers alone (48). The importance
of women in culture is just as great; but the roles have changed.
Today's Nubian woman has no great Queen to look to; nor do they have a
religion based on the worship of the all-knowing mother figure. But,
what Nubian women do have is a chance that there ancestors never had.
With the last period of resettlement, some Nubian women have decided to
move to the cities of Egypt and the Sudan (49). Of course, their
standard of living may not increase, but this shows an independence
unheard of among the common women of the ancient period.
Expecting all Nubian women to live up to the strong Queens of their past
is a bit much. Nevertheless, there must be an impact on the lives of
the descendants of these Queens. Perhaps the small steps toward
independence by the Nubian woman of today shows a courage beyond their
sex. In any case, the unique roles of the women of ancient Nubia revel
a unique and startling strength in both the women and the culture.
NOTES:
1 Wenig, S. Africa In Antiquity: The Essays. New York: The Brooklyn
Museum, 1978. Volume I, Page 98.
2 Olson, Stacie and Josef Wegner. Educational Guide: Ancient Nubia.
Philadelphia: University Museum Education Department, 1992. Page 14.
3 Simon, V. Spottswood. "African King in Confederate Capital." Negro
History Bulletin. Volume 46, Number 1: January, February, March 1983,
9-10. Page 9.
4 Olson, Page 1.
5 Olson, Page 6.
6 Olson, Page 6.
7 Budge, Kt., Sir E.A. Wallis. A History of Ethiopia, Nubia &
Abyssinia. Oosterhout N.B., The Netherlands: Anthropological
Publications, 1970. Page 16.
8 Olson, Page 7.
9 Olson, Page 7.
10 Adams, William Y. "Doubts About the 'Lost Pharaohs'." Journal of
Near Eastern Studies. Volume 4: July 1985, 185-192. Page 190.
11 Simon, Page 9.
12 Olson, Page 7.
13 Olson, Page 8.
14 Simon, Page 9.
15 Simon, Page 9.
16 Olson, Page 13.
17 Olson, Page 13.
18 Begley, Sharon, Farai Chideya, and Valerie Minor. "Of Pygmies and
Princes." Newsweek. Volume 120, Number 16: 19 October 1992. Page 60.
19 Fairservis, Jr., Walter A. The Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile. New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1962. Page 171.
20 Fairservis, Page 171.
21 Fairservis, Page 172.
22 Wenig, Volume II, Page 181.
23 Adams, William Y. Nubia. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1977. Page 337.
24 Fairservis, Page 174.
25 Wenig, Volume II, Page 16.
26 Wenig, Volume II, Page 83.
27 Wenig, Volume II, Page 70.
28 Wenig, Volume I, Page 98.
29 Keating, Rex. Nubian Twilight. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
Inc., 1963. Page 70.
30 Keating, Page 71.
31Keating, Page 70.
32 Diop, Cheikh Anta. The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago,
Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books, 1974. Page 143.
33 Keating, Page 71.
34 Simon, Page 10.
35 Strabo, qtd in Diop, Page 143.
36 Diop, Page 143.
37 Wenig, Volume II, Page 249.
38 Wenig, Volume II, Page 249.
39 Wenig, Volume II, Page 251.
40 Wenig, Volume II, Page 251.
41 Wenig, Volume II, Page 55.
42 Schueler, Gerald & Betty. Coming Into the Light. St. Paul:
Llewellyn Publications, 1989. Page 22.
43 Schueler, Page 22.
44 Wenig, Volume II, Page 237.
45 Wenig, Volume II, Page 237.
46 Wenig, Volume II, Page 237.
47 Fernea, Robert A. and Georg Gerster. Nubians in Egypt. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1973. Page 121.
48 Kennedy, John G. Nubian Ceremonial Life. New York: The University
of California Press, 1978. Page 4.
49 Kennedy, Page 4.
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tlkneller@mailbox.syr.edu
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