| UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA - AFRICAN STUDIES CENTER |
Handouts: a sampling (Others available at our Resource Library.)
To order a copy of the packet of handouts send $4.00 African Outreach Program, African Studies Center, Boston University, 270 Bay State Road, Boston, MA 02215. Make checks payable to the African Studies Center.
Key Resource Books:
A sampling on African history:
Any book by Basil Davidson.
Through African Eyes ed. Leon Clark (a wonderful collection of first
hand accounts, plus a creative teachers guide. Teaching
Strategies).
Fiction on impact of colonialism and missionaries by Ngugi wa Thiong'o
(The River Between, Weep Not Child, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi
(play), and by Chinua Achebe (Things Fall Apart P. Curtin, ed.,
Africa.
Remembered (incl. slave autobiographies, incl. their African experience)
On contemporary Africa:
World Eagle, An Atlas of Reproducible Pages.
Wiley, D. and Crofts, M., Third World: Africa.
Sullivan, J., Global Studies: Africa.
Fiction by Ousmane Sembene, esp. his short story
collection; by Bessie Head, esp. her short story
collection; by Ngugi, esp. his short story
collection; by p'Bitek, Song of Lawino
UMass Amherst, Center for lnternat'l Education, African Studies Handbook
(curriculum guide for schools).
Unitarian Universalist Service Committee, lntroducing Africa.
On literature:
See above citations.
See also the handout (listed above) "African Literature in Your
Classroom."
Note that African literature is extremely well suited for social
studies, as African writing focuses on social, cultural and
political themes .
"African folktales and proverbs are an excellent resource for all ages,
but are especially accessible to younger children.
E. Gunner, A Handbook for Teaching African Literature (an extensive
teachers' guide).
Teachers' Guides:
Some of the books listed above function as general guides to teaching
about Africa in addition to offering specific curricular materials.
E. Jefferson Murphy and Harry Stein, Teaching Africa Today: a handbook
for teachers and curriculum planners.
University of Illinois African Studies Ctr., Curriculum Materials for
Teachers.
For films and videos:
Call for information and suggestions. All books listed are available for
borrowing by visiting the African Studies Outreach Library. Outreach
library hours are M-F 9-4:30; Appointment advised. Before visiting.
Tel: 617-353-7303.
Prepared by Barbara Brown, PhD.
Director, "Africa in the Schools and Community"
African Studies Center, Boston University
270 Bay State Road, Boston MA 02215 (1991)
SOURCES: AN ADDENDUM TO "RESOURCE LIST FOR TEACHING ABOUT AFRICA." IN ADDITION TO BOOKS: NEWSLETTERS AND NEWS MAGAZINES AND QUALITY
NEWSPAPERS IMPORTANT SOURCES FOR TEACHERS:
--Christian Science Monitor: Perhaps the best U.S. daily in terms of comprehensive international coverage which is written in a succinct manner at a level accessible to upper level high school students.
NEW INTERNATIONALIST [MONTHLY--P.0. BOX 1143, LEWISTON, NEW YORK, 14092. $29.00 Annual subscription. Written for the laypublic with a strong interest in international development related issues, each month the issue focuses on either a globally important topic or on a world region.]
AFRICA NEWS [Bi-Weekly News magazine with focus on Africa, comprehensive but accessible to non-Africanist public--teachers and upper level (grade 10-12) students. P.0. Box 3851 Durham, N.C. 27702
AFRICAN ECOLOGY, WORLD ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
Lester Brown (ed), State of the World, 1991: A WorldWatch Institute
Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable society (New York: W.W.
Norton Company, 1991).
Lester Brown (ed), The World Watch Reader on Global Environmental Issues
(New York: w.w. Norton, 1991).
Susan George, Ill Fares the Land: Essays on Food, Hunger and Power (New
York: Penguin Books, 2nd Ed., 1990).
Frances Moore Lappe and Joseph Collins, World Hunger 10 Myths :Every
Country has the Resources to Feed its People (San Francisco: Food
First Institute, 1982.
Peter Lawrence (ed), World Recession and the Food Crisis in Africa
(Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1986.
Ben Wisner, Power and Need in Africa: (Trenton N.J.: Africa World Press,
1989.
"Global Food Security: Focus on Africa" (1988); "Food, Environment and Development." (1989) and "The Hunger Puzzle." (1991) Monographs prepared by the U.S. Committee for World Food Day, 1001 22nd St. N.W., Washington D.C. 20437 AIDS IN AFRICA [Besides journal articles and news reports few non- specialized accounts or analyses, readily accessible by laypublic are available.]
Africa Report (November-December, 1988) Special Edition on "AIDS in Africa: Facing the Facts."
Albert Henn and Charles Myers, "The Potential Impact of AIDS in Africa," in R. Rothberg (ed) African in the 1990s and Beyond (Algonac MI: Reference Publications, 1988). Project Ideas Utilizing African Arts and Handcrafts
Themes may be used as a starting point for teaching classes on the arts and cultures of Africa. This vast continent offers a huge array of artistic possibilities. The six major themes listed below will provide endless approaches for the classroom teacher.
THEME ACTIVITY/PROJECT Myths*Study of regional mythology *Write and illustrate a class book on the myths of a particular group, i.e. *Asante, Ebo, Egyptian *Adinkra stamp project *Egyptian hieroglyphs *Adire cloth stencils
Ceremonies *Construct costumes and musical instruments used in initiation, healing, planting, hunting and death ceremonies. *Design jewelry *Produce prints based on ceremonial design motifs *Egungun masquerade *Akan clay memorial heads
Food and article containers *Asante gold dust box *Calabash containers *Egyptian Sarcophagus *Canopic jars *Clay dishes based on traditional designs
Animals *Study the use of animal motifs in African art *Dahomey applique *Egyptian deities *An in-depth study of a particular environment and the animals which inhabit it.
Clothing *Study costumes from various areas and note their relationship to the people's environment *weaving projects based on traditional designs -2- Clothing *Stencil designs on personal clothing with a combination of African writing *Tie dye and batik projects
Music and Dance *Utilize African musical instruments as inspiration for student projects *Paint or draw a composition based inspired by traditional dances or music *Produce a play based on the *additional music of a particular group, i.e. grio history songs from Mali
LONG RANGE PROJECT IDEAS
*Have the class pick a certain part of West Africa, studying and reporting on the following areas: architecture, urban cultures, the role of youth in these cultures, ceremonies in which the youth would participate. Have the students build a model urban town which uses traditional architecture, have them write about the possible activities which might take place within this town.
*A class book on one kingdom, such as the Yoruba of Nigeria would be an exciting project. The book could include drawings, pop-up illustrations, as well as written information on the history of the people.
*After studying and researching a cultural group, the class may construct a mural which will illustrate some of the cultural attributes the students thought were important.
*Another project could consist of a broad study of animals in a particular habitat, and man's interaction with these animals. Several relationships could be considered: religious, ecological, ceremonial and mythical.
*The study of clothing and jewelry as status and ceremonial objects, is another popular topic with the students. This topic could be approached geographicly, starting with North Africa and ending in South Africa.
FILM REVIEWS
by Robert Hamilton
"Africa: A Voyage of Discovery". Written and narrated by Basil Davidson. 1984. Eight-part series of 57 minutes each. Available on four VHS videocassettes from Zenger Videos, 10200 Jefferson Boulevard, Room 98, P.0. Box 802, Culver City, CA 90232- 0802; tel (800) 421-4246. Cost $239.
Arranged chronologically, Davidson tours the continent's history through programs which middle and high school students find easy to follow. Davidson, who has produced more than 20 books about African history (e.g. Black Mother; The Lost Cities of Africa) tackles moral as well as political and social issues in an effort to highlight the achievements of small- and large scale African societies and to explain the changes in European-African relations resulting from the trans- Atlantic slave trade, imperialism, and colonialism.
"The Africans: A Triple Heritage." Written and narrated by Ali Mazrui. Ninepart series of 60 minutes each. Available from:lntellimation, P.0. Box 1927, Santa Barbara, CA 93117; tel. 1-800-LEARNER and ask for Cheryl. Cost $250.
This series of programs about contemporary Africa began with The African Condition, the book-length collection of Reith Lectures which Al Mazrui delivered in England in 1979. "The Africans" was a television series and telecourse which was produced by WETA-TV, Washington, D.C. and the British Broadcasting Corporation; it initially aired in late 1986. The series is available as a book and as a "Viewer's Guide".
Mazrui examines the "triple heritage" of traditional African institutions, Islam, and Western Christianity and secularism within the continent in an effort to understand contemporary Africa. Appropriate for high school and college students.
"No Easy Walk" Distributed by Bernard Odjidja, produced by J. Edward Milner. Three separate programs of 60 minutes each. Available through THE CINEMA GUILD, 1697 Broadway, New York, NY 10019; tel (212) 246-5522. Cost $395 each; $1,000 for the series; rent at $90 each.
"No Easy Walk" includes three videocassette documentaries of the history of colonialism and the independence movements in Kenya and Zimbabwe and the shorter colonial period and resistance movement in Ethiopia. Includes substantial footage of the two periods and interviews with European and African participants.
The University of Florida has a large African film and videocassette collection which the outreach program utilizes in conducting teacher workshops and institutes. Clips from recent additions to the collection will be shown at the Southwest Florida coalition for the Social Studies Convention on March 2 in Venice, Florida, at Manatee Community College. A presentation, "Africa in the classroom," will include clips from the Basil Davidson and Ali Mazrui series described above.
The following new films are available when the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida conducts a teacher workshop or institute:
"WEND KUUNI" (God's Gift).Producer/Director: Gaston Kabore. Burkina Faso. In More with English subtitles. Time: 70 minutes. 1982.
Gaston Kabore's tale of a young boy's unexpected affect on the family and village who adopt him. The action takes place in pre-colonial times in the West African savannah. Adapts the storytelling tradition to film for family and student audiences.
"YEELEN" (Brightness). Producer/Director: Souleymane Cisse. Mali. In Bambara with English subtitles. Time: 105 minutes. 1987. "Yeelen", which won the Cannes Film Festival Jury Prize, is about the destructive conflict between a father and son who vie with each other for knowledge of the "secrets" of nature. "Yeelen" has particularly appealed to American viewers concerned with environmental issues.
"ZAN BOKO".Producer/Director: Gaston Kabore. Burkina Faso. In More with French and English subtitles. Time: 94 minutes. 1988. The story of a rural family whose life is painfully disrupted when their village is absorbed by the country's largest city. A crusading journalist adopts their cause in an effort to assist them to reverse the government's policy. Government officials respond in an ending which features Kabore's attack on government corruption and media censorship. Appropriate for high school and college students.
"MAPANTSULA" (The Gangster). Director: Oliver Schmitz; producer: Max Montocchio. South Africa. In English, Zulu, Sotho, and Afrikaans with English subtitles. Time: 104 minutes. 1988.
Endorsed by the African National Congress and well-received at several international film festivals, "Mapantsula" is an anti-apartheid film about daily life in Soweto. The street-wise protagonist-- Panic-- is a small-time gangster who survives on a day-to-day basis by picking pockets, shoplifting, and gambling. Arrested and thrown into the same cell with ANC activists, Panic is confronted with individuals whose values are radically different from his own. Their dedication and the "deal" which the authorities offer Panic bring him face-to-face with the larger political realities within South Africa and force him to make painful choices. Appropriate for high school and college students.
"CHOCOLAT". Director: Calire Denis. French with English subtitles. Time: 105 minutes. Based in part upon the director's childhood experiences in Cameroon, the film utilizes flashback techniques to depict the family life of a French colonial administrative officer, his young daughter and beautiful and restless wife, and their handsome house servant, Protee. Years later, the daughter returns to reflect upon the barriers which separated the "colonizer" and the "colonized" and the experiences, feelings, and emotions which they shared.
Resources for Preparing A Curriculum on APARTHEID
The Outreach Program serves schools, museums and community organizations throughout New England. The director can assist you in curriculum preparation. ln addition, there is a large learning library of books, pamphlets, records, games and audiovisual materials suitable for students of various ages. Speakers are also available.
How to Prepare A Curriculum On Apartheid Run, don't walk, to the nearest bookstore (or to B.U.'s African Studies Center) and find a copy of William Bigelow's A Stranger in Their Own Country. Turn to p.iii which summarizes how to carry out a 1, 2, or 3 week curriculum (as well as a full 6- week course). The rest of the book contains the lesson plans and the student hand-outs (plus a bibliography). This book is super. If you wish, you could supplement it with material and activities focused on South African student life from This Child Is Not Dead and end by showing the "Sun City" rock and rap video, then having students write their own songs or rap/poems.
William Bigelow has also produced a 3-5 day lesson plan to accompany the stirring film "Witness to Apartheid" (available from BU's African Outreach Program).
List of Curriculum Resources:
(all are available at the African Outreach Program)
Strangers in Their Own Country. William Bigelow (Africa World Press, Trenton, N.J.) Step-by-step curriculum on South Africa. Especially useful for high school but can be adapted for both younger and older students. Covers both South African politics and U.S.- South African relations. Includes games, activities and exercises for students. Fiction and non-fiction reading.
The Child Is Not Dead: Youth Resistance in South Africa. 1976-1986 (published by the International Defense and Aid Fund) A 64 pp. booklet, written and compiled by British teachers for use in junior high and high school. Consists of short readings - poems, news articles, eyewitness accounts and personal statements - on the lives and resistance of black students under apartheid. Contains a variety of interesting suggestions for activities. Requires a basic background on apartheid for best use. Would be an excellent supplement to Strangers in Their Own Country or to Apartheid Is Wrong because of the focus on students.
Sun City: a song, a videocassette, a book and a teaching guide. Rated the number one song of 1986 by critics at Time and Rolling Stone, the song is a powerful musical statement against apartheid which can excite students to learn more about South Africa. The song and video can be used in several ways, e.g., as an opening lesson to generate student questions, or, perhaps more effectively, as the culminating lesson to the curriculum Strangers in Their Own Country. ("Sun City" does not provide a comprehensive look at apartheid.) The "Sun City" teaching guide is excellent.
lnterracial Books for Children, Bulletin. v.15 #7/8 and v.16 #5/6. These issues, entirely devoted to South Africa, contain an excellent review of the depiction of South Africa in US textbooks and other useful materials for preparing a curriculum.
"Focus on South Africa: Time Running Out," lntercom (a journal published by Global Perspectives in Education), Nov. 1983. This very helpful 56 pp. issue consists of 12 lesson plans, including student handouts. There are very good sections on apartheid, but the curriculum is weak on the anti-apartheid struggle and on U.S. relations with South Africa.
South Africa on the Move: A Tool Kit for Education and Action An excellent detailed guide to teaching about South Africa, based on a pedagogical approach which emphasizes active participation of the students and comparison with common issues found in Canada [&, by extension, the US].
Apartheid Is Wrong: A Curriculum for Young People is a very fine multi- disciplinary, detailed, hands-on curriculum and filmstrip (w/ audio cassette) for grades 1 through 12.
BOSTON ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH SOUTH AFRICA:
Boston TransAfrica
(TransAfrica is the national black lobby group for Africa and the Caribbean) lobbying and public education P.O. Box 664, Astor Station, MA 02123, 445-8010
Mobilization for Survival (South Africa coordinator: Lee Farris) public education and organizing to support change in S. Africa; current work focuses on S. African children 11 Garden St., Cambridge, MA 02138, 354-0008
Fund for a Free South Africa (director: Themba Vilakazi) " non-profit organization funding education and community change in S. Africa 729 Boylston Street. Boston, MA 267-8333 NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH SOUTH AFRICA:
American Committee on Africa 198 Broadway, NYC 10038, 212-962-1210 publishes excellent fact sheets on South Africa; raises money for refugees and for community projects in southern Africa
TransAfrica 545 8th St. SE, Suite 200, Washington, D.C. 20003 the black American lobby for Africa and the Caribbean
Washington Office on Africa 110 Maryland Ave., NE, Washington, D.C. 20002, 202-546-7961 national lobby group on southern Africa; sponsored by several national churches and trade unions
FOR FILMS, VIDEOS AND SLIDE SHOWS ON SOUTH AFRICA:
1 . African Studies Center, Boston University, 270 Bay State Road,
Boston, MA 02215 353-7303.
2. American Friends Service Committee, 2161 Mass. Ave., Cambridge, MA
02140 497-5273.
SUGGESTED Readings:
NON-Fiction
Move Your Shadow. Joseph Lelyveld Winner of Pulitzer Prize. Very readable and good introduction to contemporary society and politics, including U.S. corporate involvement. Lacks perspective on internal resistance to apartheid. (Chapters can be read individually without reading whole book.)
Freedom Rising. James North Very readable introduction to South African society and politics. Excellent section on resistance to apartheid. (Chapters can be read individually without reading whole book.)
South Africa: Foreign Investment and Apartheid. L Litvak, et al Comprehensive look at U.S.-South African corporate relations.
Crossing the Line. William Finnegan Finnegan, who is now a staff writer for the New Yorker, writes with insight into his experience as a teacher in a black South African high school.
The Anti-Apartheid Reader. ed., David Mermelstein An exceptionally wide ranging selection of articles explaining the origins of apartheid and the nature of the current struggle.
No Easy Way to Freedom, and The Struggle Is My life. Nelson Mandela. A moving and key account of the struggle against apartheid. Mandela describes his life, his reasons for opposing apartheid and the history of resistance to apartheid.
FICTION, PLAYS AND POETRY: read works by:
Dennis Brutus (poet), especially A Simple Lust Athol Fugal (playwright), especially Master Harold and the Boys and Siwe Banzi is Dead Nadine Gordimer (novelist and short story writer), especially Burger's Daughter (novel) and A Soldier's Embrace (short stories)
Novels on resistance to apartheid:
Alex LaGuma. ln the Fog at the Season's End Wally Serote. To Every Birth Its Blood - focus on students. Mbulelo Mzamane. Children of Soweto - focus on students.
RECOMMENDED FICTION & BIOGRAPHY WRITTEN ESPECIALLY FOR YOUNG READERS
(ages listed when specified by publisher):
Mary Benson's biography of Nelson Mandela
Sheila Gordon, Waiting for Rain [winner of several children's book awards (ages 12).
Milton Metzler, Winnie Madela (ages 7-11).
Beverly Naidoo. Journey to Jo'burg: A South African Story [winner of several children's book awards].
______________ Chain of Fire (ages 11 & up).
Hazel Rochman, ed.. Somehow Tenderness Survives: Stories of Southern Africa [an ALA Best Book for Young Adults].
John Vail. Nelson and Winnie Mandela.
The Open School. Two Dogs and Freedom - drawings and observations about life in South Africa by black South African children.
AGENDA: CREATING THE TEACHABLE MOMENT; MODEL LESSONS AND TOPICS FOR MIDDLE SCHOOLS
African Studies Association, November 23, 1991
Dr. Barbara B. Brown, Boston University
Ms. Ann Barysh, Brookline (MA) Public Schools
1. Introduction:defining the teachable moment
2. Teachable Moment #1: language arts lesson Botswana: What's in a
name?
3. Teachable Moment #2: challenging stereotypes "Journey to
Understanding" video #1: 'Understanding Each Other'
4. Teachable Moment #3: focus on a country "Salaama's Daily Routine,"
photos from Family in Kenya and a lesson from the related teaching
guide "The Suitcase Scholar Goes to Kenya" (Lerner Publications)
5. Teachable Moment #4: cultural values Swahili Proverbs:identifying
underlying values
What Makes These Lessons "Teachable Moments?"
1. making connections with our lives while respecting differences
2. relating the unit to other segments of the curriculum
3. teaching about a country or theme
4. being developmentally appropriate for middle school children
5. recognizing and responding to what our students already believe
about Africa
WHAT'S IN A NAME?
Objectives;
*Learn how parents in Botswana (the country Mothusi is from) name their children.
1 . Choose a name from Botswana for yourself from the list below.
Girls' Names and What They mean
Lerato Love Dineo Gifts Tebogo Thanks Lesego Blessing Palesa Flower Mapule Mother of rain Naledi Star Boys' Names and What They Mean Molefi Reward Thabo Happiness Mothusi Helper Modise Shepherd Modupi Long, gentle rain Moruti Teacher Tiro Work Names Used for Girls or Boys and What They Mean Neo Gift Thuso Help Tumelo Faith
2. When children are born in Botswana, their parents choose their names with great care. Parents will either give a baby a name of a relative or give them a name no one has yet had in the family-- but all of the names still mean something, such as love or gift or helper.
Look at the list of names above and answer these questions: Which names would parents in Botswana give a child
3. Imagine that your name from Botswana is your real name. Write a short letter to Mothusi telling him why your parents chose that name for you.
4. For homework, find out if you can how your own name was chosen and write down the answer. Report on your answer in class and see if there are different reasons parents have for choosing names.
Answers for #2:
(Several of the names on the list don't fall into the three categories in questions a-c.)
Answer to #4: Some of the more common reasons are: the name of someone in the family, the name of someone famous, a name which sounds beautiful, a name with a particular meaning (such as in Botswana).
LESSON PLAN: EARLY CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA
GOALS
The student will be able to: describe the earliest penetration and development of Christianity in Africa; recognize the affect of Christianity on the political and spiritual life of Egypt and Axum.
KEY WORDS
Alexandria monophysite Axum Nubia Calendar of Martyrs hieroglyphics Catechetical liturgy colloquial trinity Coptic Prester John dogma deity monasteries martyrdom scriptural
LESSON TEXT: COPTIC EGYPT
Pre-Christian Egypt
Before the coming of Christianity to Egypt, most of the population held religious beliefs of the Pharaonic period. These beliefs included ideas similar to Christian ones: the idea of God; a cosmic order, God's creation of earth and life; human humility before God: and the concept of asking God's forgiveness for sinful thoughts and deeds. The similarity of these early beliefs with those of Christianity facilitated the spread of Christianity in Egypt. Because Jews had been present in Egypt for nearly a century, Egyptians were also familiar with the scriptural roots of Christianity.
The Introduction of Christianity in Egypt
It is believed that Christianity was first brought to Egypt by Saint Mark or his missionaries, who arrived around 100 A.D. Missionary activities were directed at the Greek population in Alexandria and Greek was used as the language of the Church at that time in Egypt. Many of the first converts to Christianity were members of the large Jewish minority. Within half a century, Christianity rapidly spread from Alexandria, the location of St. Mark's ministry, throughout Egypt, gaining many converts outside the Jewish population. During this period the Roman Empire interfered very little with religious life in Egypt but was primarily concerned with collecting taxes and overseeing the production of grain for the Empire. Egyptians-- Christians or otherwise- -disliked Roman domination and the economic hardships it brought to the lower classes. Such economic hardship among the lower classes may have encouraged their conversion to Christianity as it offered the hope of a better life. The Christians, of course, viewed the Romans as pagans.
The Persecution of Christians
During the period 249-251 A.D. under Roman Emperor Decius, the Romans became more involved with the daily life in Egypt. Fearing that the growing Christianity movement might threaten stability, Decius instituted measures to control the growth of Christianity. Egyptians were ordered to practice traditional rituals; those who refused to participate were declared Christians and subsequently tortured. Many of the new Christian converts chose death rather than forsake their faith. The martyrdom of these Christians inspired many others to convert to the new religion.
Under the reign of Emperor Diocletian (elected 284 A.D.), who determined that Christians should be eliminated, the persecution of Christians increased. Thousands of Christians were killed during Rome's last attempt to eliminate the Christian community in Egypt. In remembrance of this period, the Coptic calendar, known as the Calendar of Martyrs, begins on August 29, 284 AD. However, not all Christians were killed by the Romans: many hid their religious beliefs and still others escaped to the desert or to the extensive catacombs along the Nile river and continued to practice Christianity. Diocletian's scourge is viewed as the last attempt by Rome to remove a movement which had become a permanent feature of Egypt.
In 312 A.D. the Roman Emperor Constantine, who reportedly experienced a revelation, converted to Christianity and issued the Edict of Milan which established religious tolerance in the Roman Empire. The future of Christianity was ensured when Emperor Theodosius, who ruled from 375 to 395 A.D., declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. After the Roman Empire adopted Christianity and set about assimilating Christians into the empire, the spheres of religious and state life became linked in Egypt as well as in Rome. In essence the church was considered a part of the Empire and the political leader of the Empire became the spiritual leader of the church as well. The Roman emperors increasingly contributed to the development of church dogma. It was not until the third century AD. that the Coptic church developed as a separate entity from the Greek Church in Egypt. At this time the New Testament was translated into the Coptic language, which is an adaptation of Egyptian hieroglyphics into the Greek alphabet. It is from this language that the Christian church in Egypt derived its name, the Coptic Church, and its followers are known as Coptic Christians. Before this translation, only the Psalms and a few other writings had been available to Copts in Coptic. The translators of the New Testament also used a more colloquial form of Coptic in the translation, thus making it available to a great many more Egyptians. This translation accelerated the fusion of the Greek church with the indigenous Coptic. By 302-305 A.D., the Bishop of Alexandria controlled both the extensive Coptic and Greek churches.
Coptic Contributions to Christianity
Many ancient temples were converted to monasteries and Egyptian Copts became famous for perfecting monastic life. All Christian monasticism has its origins in Egypt. For example the famous monasteries of Saint Basil and Saint Benedict followed Egyptian examples. These monasteries became quite famous and attracted many pilgrims. A great number of churches were also built. The Coptic Church made significant contributions to the development of Christianity. The Catechetical School of Alexandria, founded in 200 A.D., became the worldwide center of Christian scholarship. The biographies of Saint Antony and Saint Paul drew popular attention to them, the School, and Christianity.
The Coptic Church Outside Egypt
The Coptic Church extended its influence beyond the borders of Egypt through missionary work. Strong Christian communities appeared south of Egypt. It is believed that Syrians, who were knowledgeable of the Coptic church, carried the religion into the kingdoms of Axum and Nubia, which today are Ethiopia and Sudan. A limited number of converts were made in Asia. Coptic missionaries could even be found as far north as the British Isles.
The Division of Christianity
During the period 200-400 A.D. the Roman, Coptic, and Greek Orthodox Churches disagreed about the nature of Christ as well as other matters of doctrine, liturgy, and ritual. (Protestant churches were not established until the 16th century). Debate centered around whether or not Jesus had one nature-- divine-- or two natures-- divine and human. In 325 A.D. the Council of Nicea was convened to address this issue. Over 318 bishops and delegates from Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Rome and Greece attended. The Egyptian delegate, Athanasius, eloquently argued that Jesus and God were indeed the same. Out of this conference the Nicene Creed was issued which declared that all Christian Churches must adhere to the idea that God and Jesus are one. However, serious factional disputes continued to occur on this issue and others.
In 451 A.D., the Council of Chalcedon was convened to attempt a reunification of the Christian world. During this conference, the Nicene Creed was altered slightly to allow room for future additions to this creed. Although the change was accepted by the Greek Orthodox Church (Eastern Roman Church) and the Roman Church, the Coptic Church refused to accept the change. The Copts then established their own separate religious leadership and rules. Since that time the Coptic Church has been an independent church, with its capital located, until 1954, in Alexandria.
Islam Comes to Egypt
In 641 A D., Egypt was conquered by Muslim Arabs. By 700 A.D., the Arab rulers began to demand tribute from the Coptic monks. Coptic Churches were destroyed and religious artifacts burned. The Coptic population became subject to increasingly heavy taxes. The Coptic language was outlawed for everyday use by the Arab rulers. Over the next few centuries the majority of the population slowly converted to Islam. Intermarriage by Muslim conquerors with the Egyptians was the primary means of spreading Islam. It was not until the 2Oth century that the Coptic population obtained equal rights with Muslims. After remaining loyal to Musllm rulers for centuries many Copts now hold posts of honor in the government and are viewed as loyal civil servants.
The Coptic Church Today
Today, Copts, also called Orthodox Egyptian Christians, number about 7 million people in Egypt. The Coptic Church has a membership of about 14 million people worldwide. Although a minority, the Copts run a substantial number of schools, hospitals and social service centers in Egypt. The Coptic language survives only in ritualistic chants; church services are now held in Arabic.
The most important holiday to Copts is Easter. Copts prepare for Easter by fasting for two weeks before Lent and then by observing the Lent fast. During that time, Copts do not consume meat, eggs, fish, wine, or coffee, and no food at all is eaten between sunrise and sunset. Coptic Christmas is observed on January 7.
The Coptic Church does not allow the worship of saints but the Virgin Mary and Saint Michael are especially revered. Copts are extremely proud of the biblical significance of their country. There are many sights within Egypt where the Holy Family-- Jesus, Mary, and Joseph-- stayed after fleeing Israel. According to the Bible, when King Solomon heard of the birth of the Messiah, he ordered that all male infants be killed. To save Jesus the Holy Family fled to Egypt.
CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA
Pre-Christian Axum
Very little is known of the spiritual beliefs of the inhabitants of Axum prior to the coming of Christianity. Most likely, they believed in a spiritual deity of some sort although the actual deity probably varied from community to community. Natives of Axum were familiar with the religion of the Sabeans, who came from southern Arabia. The Sabeans worshipped a divine trinity composed of the moon god, the sun goddess, and the morning star. Greek gods were also known and some were adopted into traditional religious beliefs. The king was the political, military, and religious leader of the state. He was considered divine in nature and was the link between God and his people.
The Introduction of Christianity
Christianity was introduced to the Axum royal court around 300 AD. by two Syrian Christians, Frumentius and Aedisius. These two men, who may have been shipwrecked, were welcomed heartily at Axum. Soon after their arrival the king of Axum died, leaving his wife to rule until his sons came of age. The queen, impressed with the Syrians' Greek education, asked them to help her rule. In this capacity Frumentius and Aedisius influenced the young prince and converted him to Christianity. When the prince became king, the Syrians left Axum. Frumentius travelled directly to Alexandria and was appointed the first Bishop of Ethiopia.
Christianity in Ethiopia
Archaeological evidence strongly suggests that Christianity was the official religion of Axum by 350 A D. There appears to have been no royal decree that ordered the population to convert; nevertheless, Christianity spread rapidly throughout Axum. During the fifth and sixth centuries, missionary activity and the Axumite kings promoted popular support of Christianity. Nine monks trained in Egypt dispersed throughout the countryside and converted thousands of pagans to Christianity. They set up monasteries which became centers of learning where scripture was translated. Eventually the king granted the Church title to the land where the monasteries were located, thus contributing to the permanence of the new religion.
Doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
It is in the examination of the doctrine of the Ethiopian church that the influence of the Egyptian Coptic Church is most apparent. It must be remembered that Frumentius, the first bishop of Ethiopia, was appointed to his post by the church in Alexandria. In fact, until 1954 the leader of the Church in Ethiopia was always an Egyptian Coptic, who frequently did not speak an Ethiopian language. Like the Coptic church the Ethiopian church is monophysite. These churches do not accept that Christ can have two natures-- one human and one divine-- and have refused to adhere to the Council of Chalcedon, which declared that Christ had two natures.
The Impact of Islam
Around 580 A.D. , the Ethiopian church entered into a gradual period of decline. The coming of Islam in the seventh century further overshadowed the church. Islam flowed into Ethiopia from the east and north. Eventually Ethiopia became an island of Christianity surrounded by Islam to the north and east and paganism to the south. Ethiopia essentially isolated itself from the rest of the world and turned inward. Little Ethiopian history was documented from the 7th to the 1Oth century.
However, knowledge of Ethiopia's Christian kingdom can be found in European folklore between the 12th and 14th centuries. Legend told of a Christian Emperor, Prester John, whose kingdom was in Africa. After the defeat of the Crusades, many hoped that the Christian Emperor could be found to help triumph over Islam. The Portuguese sent expeditions to Ethiopia in search of Prester John thus ending the isolation of Ethiopia.
Around 1540 A.D. Ethiopia was invaded by the Muslim warrior Ahmad ibn Ghazi (1506-1543), known as Alunad Gran (the lefthanded). During the invasion many of Ethiopia's intellectuals were killed and much of its literary and artistic treasury were lost. This period is marked by instability within the church. Soon after the Musllm invasion, Portuguese missionaries brought Catholicism to Ethiopia. The Portuguese succeeded in converting many people, including Emperor Susenyos, but the masses remained loyal to the Ethiopian Church. Finally, under the rule of Emperor Fasilidas (1632-1667), Ethiopian Christianity again became the religion of the state. From the period of his rule until the present day, the Ethiopian Church has remained a stable and national institution in Ethiopia although it has come under considerable pressure since 1974 with the replacement of the monarchy by a military socialist government headed by Lt.-Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam.
The Ethiopian Church Today
Today nearly 40% of Ethiopia's population of over 50 million people belong to the Ethiopian Church. The doctrine and practices of the church have remained unchanged since about 500 A D. Since 1954, however, the Abuna has been an Ethiopian. No longer an island of Christianity, the Church has become an active member of the worldwide Christian community and is a member of the World Council of Churches. Although the socialist military government of Ethiopia has expropriated church property, it remains a viable and widely supported institution.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.Why did the Romans initially oppose Christianity and then later adopt it?
2.What are the similarities and differences between the development of Christianity in Ethiopia and Egypt?
LITERATURE
Atiya, Aziz S. (1979) The Copts and Christian Civilization. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Davis, A J. (1967) "Coptic Christianity" in Tarikh. Vol. 2, No. 1, Nigeria: Historical Society of Nigeria.
Davis, A J. (1967) "Orthodoxy of the Ethiopian Church" in Tarikh. Vol. 2, No. 1. Nigeria: Historical Society of Nigeria.
Donadoni, S. (1981) "Egypt Under Roman Domination" in Mokhtar, G.(ed.) General History of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
Isaac, Ephriam (1968) The Ethiopian Church. Boston: Henry Sawyer Co.
Kamil, Jill (1987) Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
Kobishanov, Y. M. (1981) "Christian Axum" in Mokhtar, G. (ed.) General History of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
Tafla, Bairu. 'The Establishment of the Ethiopian Church" in Tarikh, Vol. 2., No. 1. Nigeria: Historical Society of Nigeria.
SAMPLE TEST
MATCHING
------------ Alexandria a. World center of Christian
------------ hieroglyphics scholarship.
------------ Catechetical School of b. Ethiopia.
Alexandria c. Sudan.
------------ Axum d. Letters used in Coptic
------------ Frumentius and Aedisius language.
------------ St. Basil e. Center of Coptic Church.
f. Ancient Egyptian script.
g. Brought Christianity to
Axum.
h. Practiced monastic life.
TRUE OR FALSE
1. -------- In Pre-Christian Egypt most Egyptians were Muslim.
2. -------- The use of colloquial Coptic as the language of the Church
made it more difficult for common people to convert.
3. -------- The Nicene Creed established that Christ had one nature.
4. -------- The Church did not have the support of the King in Axum.
SHORT ANSWER
1. -------The Coptic Calendar is known as the "Calendar of --------"
to commemorate -------------------------------.
2. The primary means of spreading Islam in Egypt was --------------.
3. ----------------- churches, like the Ethiopian and Coptic, do not
accept that Christ can have two natures.
4. The leader of a mythical Christian Kingdom was --------------------.
ESSAYS
1. What factors helped facilitate the spread of Christianity in Egypt
and Ethiopia?
2. What was the impact of Islam on Christianity in Ethiopia and Egypt?
CRITERIA TO BE MET PRIOR TO ADDRESSING AFRICAN CRISES/PROBLEM ISSUES
1. SET HIGH STANDARDS FOR OBJECTIVITY FOR SELF AND STUDENTS
2. SEEK TRUST-WORTHY DOCUMENTATION/INFORMATION BEFORE ENGAGING IN DISCUSSION OF AN ISSUE OR CRISIS.
3. WHEN TEACHING AN AFRICAN UNIT DO NOT DEAL WITH PROBLEM ISSUES EXCLUSIVELY (IN ISOLATION), DEAL WITH ISSUE CONTEXTUALLY (COVER HISTORY, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND)--ISSUES SUCH AS POVERTY, FAMINE, AIDS, ARE USUALLY NOT STRUCTURALLY ENDEMIC (SYSTEMIC) TO A SOCIETY AND SHOULD NOT BE TREATED AS SUCH.
4. DO NOT ADDRESS AFRICAN PROBLEM ISSUES IN SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOM (CURRICULUM), UNLESS YOU DEAL WITH SIMILAR ISSUES WHEN COVERING HISTORY, CULTURE, GEOGRAPHY OF THE U.S., WESTERN EUROPEAN AND ASIAN SOCIETIES/NATIONS. (THAT IS, FOR EXAMPLE, DO NOT ADDRESS ISSUE OF AIDS IN AFRICA, UNLESS YOU SPEND EQUAL TIME DISCUSSION AIDS IN THE U.S., OR HUNGER/STARVATION IN AFRICA IF UNWILLING TO DISCUSS HOMELESSNESS IN U.S., OR LACK OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN AFRICA IF NOT COMPARED TO POLITICAL ALIENATION IN U.S.
1 Prepared by John Metzler, Assistant Professor of African Studies and Teacher Education, Coordinator of Outreach Programs, African Studies Center, Michigan State University. November, 1991.
1 EXPRESSED IN 30% ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION IN NON-PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION YEAR.
5. WHEN DEALING CONTEXTUALLY WITH AFRICAN ISSUES ESSENTIAL THAT CERTAIN FACTORS BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION:
(i) --THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE: i.e. fact that all of Africa suffered through 50-100 years of alien colonial rule which impacted the-- political systems: (new borders, creating nationhood out of diverse ethnic-groups, heritage of divide and rule tactics, proscription on political participation, absence of democratic institutions) ; economic systems: (structures and patterns of production-- primary products, distribution-export orientation-- and consumption-- highly differentiated) ; social organization: (including new patterns of stratification) and cultural institutions and manifestations. COLONIAL EXPERIENCE BEQUEATHED A HERITAGE WHICH IS STILL FELT.
(ii) --AFRICA'S POSITION IN WORLD POLITICAL SYSTEM--IMPACT OF COLD WAR ON POST-INDEPENDENCE RELATIONS WITH SUPER POWERS AND FORMER METROPOLITAN COUNTRIES; AFRICAN STATES' ROLE IN AND RELATIONSHIP WITH THE "NEW WORLD ORDER."
(iii)--IMPACT OF WORLD ECONOMY ON THE NATURE OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES INCORPORATION/ARTICULATION WITH THE WORLD ECONOMY--EXPORTS (primary goods), IMPORTS (manufactured, consumer goods), INVESTMENTS, AID, etc.
(iv) --HOWEVER, EQUALLY IMPORTANT TO RECOGNIZE THAT AFRICAN STATES AND THEIR LEADERS WERE AND CONTINUE TO BE AT LEAST PARTIALLYAUTONOMOUS (RELATIVE TO THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE AND CURRENT INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC PRESSURES)--THEREFORE WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE AGENDA AND "IMPERATIVES" OF AFRICAN STATE REGIMES WHICH INFORM POLITICAL PRACTICE AND SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICY.
(v) --NATURE OF AFRICAN CIVIL SOCIETY--MOST AFRICAN SOCIETIES ARE IN THE PROCESS OF BUILDING NEW SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS (BASED ON COMMON INTERESTS AND CONCERNS) IN RESPONSE TO THE REALITIES OF THECOLONIAL EXPERIENCE AND POST-COLONIAL POLITICAL ECONOMY.
(Vi) --WE SHOULD NOT "OVER-DETERMINE" AFRICAN LEADERS, SOCIAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, AFRICAN SOCIAL GROUPS (CLASS, ETHNIC, ETC.) OR INDIVIDUALS. LIKE ELSEWHERE IN THE WORLD ACTIONS ARE OFTEN STRUCTURALLY/SYSTEMICALLY CONSTRAINED, BUT ACTORS ARE ALSO AUTONOMOUS AGENTS--ACTING "RATIONALLY " ALBEIT AT TIMES WITH UNINTENDED AND NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES. CONSEQUENTLY, ATTEMPTING TO INTERPRET THE ACTIONS INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, INSTITUTIONS, MAY HELP US UNDERSTAND PROBLEMS/CRISES WHICH ARE SEEMINGLY RELATED TOTHESE ACTIONS.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING MATERIALS ON AFRICA
1. Is Africa characterized as a country rather than a continent?
2. Is North Africa treated as though it is not a part of Africa?
3. Are offensive, inaccurate or biased terms used?
Inaccurate/offensive terms: native, hut, jungle, witchdoctor, dialect, primitive,warlike, uncivilized, pagan, tribe.
Inaccurate/offensive names for groups: Bantu (correct: Bantu-speaking), Pygmy (correct: Mbuti), Bushmen (correct: San or hunter-gatherers), Hottentot (correct: Khoikhoi).
Western bias: developing, under-developed, civilized, emerging, backward, non-white, non-Western, Black African, communist.
4. Are the economic and/or political factors underlying conflicts between Africans described or are such conflicts inaccurately and simplistically characterized as "tribal"?
5. Is the focus primarily on lifestyles of minorities that are not typical of Africans? (e.g. San , Mbuti, Maasai). Is polygamy overemphasized? Are foods or customs made to seem strange or revolting?
6. Is the continent depicted as unhealthy, poverty-stricken, and/or conflict-ridden? Do the discussions of problems include African-devised solutions and perspectives? Are problems placed in historical and global contexts? Are African technological systems depicted as "simple," unproductive, and/or organized only to meet basic needs? Are Western methods described as the models Africans should adopt? Are Western failures in Africa noted? Do development discussions detail the economic benefits Western experts and countries gain when implementing plans in Africa? Is the U.S. depicted as a generous donator of humanitarian aid?
7. Is history presented in chronological stages beginning with early and ancient times or is the primary focus on the colonial period and the actions of Europeans in Africa? Are the - "benefits" of colonialism stressed or are the conditions under which most African lived during colonization described? Are colonialists described as "granting" independence to Africans or are the political and military struggles Africans waged to win independence described?
8. Are Africans described as "animists" who worship trees, rocks or insects? Are the complex roles missionaries played in Africa described or are missionaries simplistically depicted as the carriers of knowledge and "civilization"?
9. Are folktales over-represented in elementary collections?
10. Are the illustrations representative and balanced?
11. Do collections and curricula reflect an infusion of knowledge about Africa into various disciplines and subjects?
12. Do materials reflect African viewpoints and perspectives? TERMS TO AVOID TERMS TO USE
Editor: Dr. Ali B. Ali-Dinar, Ph.D.
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